Technology of Hydrogen Fueled Rotary Engine | Dual Fuel System ( Hydrogen + Gasoline)

This hydrogen engine takes advantage of the characteristics of Mazda’s unique rotary engine and maintains a natural driving feeling unique to internal combustion engines. It also achieves excellent environmental performance with zero CO2 emissions. 
Further, the hydrogen engine ensures performance and reliability equal to that of a gasoline engine. Since the gasoline version requires only a few design changes to allow it to operate on hydrogen, hydrogen-fueled rotary engine vehicles can be realized at low cost. In addition, because the dual-fuel system allows the engine to run on both hydrogen and gasoline, it is highly convenient for long-distance journeys and trips to areas with no hydrogen fuel supply.

Technology of the RENESIS Hydrogen Rotary Engine:

The RENESIS hydrogen rotary engine employs direct injection, with electronically-controlled hydrogen gas injectors. This system draws in air from a side port and injects hydrogen directly into the intake chamber with an electronically-controlled hydrogen gas injector installed on the top of the rotor housing. The technology illustrated below takes full advantage of the benefits of the rotary engine in achieving hydrogen combustion.

RE Features suited to Hydrogen Combustion

In the practical application of hydrogen internal combustion engines, avoidance of so-called backfiring (premature ignition) is a major issue. Backfiring is ignition caused by the fuel coming in contact with hot engine parts during the intake process. In reciprocal engines, the intake, compression, combustion and exhaust processes take place in the same location—within the cylinders. As a result, the ignition plugs and exhaust valves reach a high temperature due to the heat of combustion and the intake process becomes prone to backfiring. 
In contrast, the RE structure has no intake and exhaust valves, and the low-temperature intake chamber and high-temperature combustion chamber are separated. This allows good combustion and helps avoid backfiring. 
Further, the RE encourages thorough mixing of hydrogen and air since the flow of the air-fuel mixture is stronger and the duration of the intake process is longer than in reciprocal engines.

Combined use of Direct Injection and Premixing

Aiming to achieve a high output in hydrogen fuel mode, a direct injection system is applied by installing an electronically-controlled hydrogen gas injector on the top of the rotor housing. Structurally, the RE has considerable freedom of injector layout, so it is well suited to direct injection. 
Further, a gas injector for premixing is installed on the intake pipe enabling the combined use of direct injection and premixing, depending on driving conditions. This produces optimal hydrogen combustion. 
When in the gasoline fuel mode, fuel is supplied from the same gasoline injector as in the standard gasoline engine.

Adoption of Lean Burn and EGR

Lean burn and exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) are adopted to reduce nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions. NOx is primarily reduced by lean burn at low engine speeds, and by EGR and a three-way catalyst at high engine speeds. The three-way catalyst is the same as the system used with the standard gasoline engine. 
Optimal and appropriate use of lean burn and EGR satisfies both goals of high output and low emissions. The volume of NOx emissions is about 90 percent reduced from the 2005 reference level.

Dual Fuel System

When the system runs out of hydrogen fuel, it automatically switches to gasoline fuel. For increased convenience, the driver can also manually shift the fuel from hydrogen to gasoline at the touch of a button.

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Steering Systems | Hydraulic Power Steering Systems | Steering Wheel Parts

STEERING

The steering system in a vehicle is used to move the vehicle in a particular direction. This is a very important sub-system in a car without which it would be impossible for a vehicle to follow its desired path. The steering system can be used to steer all kinds of vehicles like cars, trucks, buses, trains, tanks etc.

The conventional steering system consisted of turning the front wheels in the desired direction. But now we have four wheel steering system mostly used in heavy vehicles, to reduce the turning radius, rear wheel steering system, differential steering system etc.

The basic components of any steering system are:-

                   1. Steering column

                   2. Steering box

                   3. Tie rods

                   4. Steering arms

The main geometry followed in steering is ACKERMANN STEERING GEOMETRY. It shows that while negotiating a curve, the inner wheel needs to follow a smaller path as compared to the outer wheel. This results in different steering angles for the respective tires.

STEERING RATIO is defined as the ratio of the turn of the steering wheel to the corresponding turn of the wheels, both which are measured in degrees. It plays an important role in determining the ease of steering. A higher ratio would mean that a large number of turns of the steering wheel is required to negotiate a small turn. A lower ratio would enable better handling. Sports cars usually have lower ratio while heavier vehicles have a higher steering ratio.

The Different types of steering systems are:-

                    1. Rack and pinion steering system

                    2. Recirculating Ball steering system

                    3. Power Steering

The Rack and Pinion steering system is the most common system found mostly in modern vehicles. It employs a simple mechanism. The parts of this system are steering column, pinion gear, rack gear, tie rods, kingpin. The circular motion of the steering wheel is transmitted to the pinion gear through the steering column and universal joint. The pinion is meshed with a rack which translates the circular motion into linear motion thus providing the necessary change in direction. It also provides a gear reduction, thus making it easier to turn the wheels. This system is preferred because of its compactness, efficiency, ease of operation. But at the same time it gets easily damaged on impact.

The Recirculation Ball steering system is employed in SUV’s and trucks. It uses a slightly different principle than the rack and pinion system. Here the motion is translated with the help of a recirculating ball gearbox, pitman arm and a track rod. It can transfer higher forces. But it is heavier and costlier than the rack and pinion system.

The Power steering system employs either one of the above systems and in addition has a hydraulic or electrical system connected to make it easier to steer. This helps in better control of the vehicle.

Other systems like steer-by-wire systems, drive-by-wire systems also exist, but they are not commercially used as of now but are most likely to replace the modern day steering systems in the future.

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Engine Speed Governors % Speed Control Governor % Speed Limiters

Speed Governor

The governor is a device which is used to controlling the speed of an engine based on the load requirements. Basic governors sense speed and sometimes load of a prime mover and adjust the energy source to maintain the desired level. So it’s simply mentioned as a device giving automatic control (either pressure or temperature) or limitation of speed.

 

The governors are control mechanisms and they work on the principle of feedback control. Their basic function is to control the speed within limits when load on the prime mover changes. They have no control over the change in speed (flywheel determines change in speed i.e. speed control) within the cycle.

Take an example:

Assume a driver running a car in hill station, at that time engine load increases, and automatically vehicle speed decreases. Now the actual speed is less than desired speed. So driver increases the fuel to achieve the desired speed. So here, the driver is a governor for this system.

So governor is a system to minimise fluctuations within the mean speed which can occur as a result of load variation. The governor has no influence over cyclic speed fluctuations however it controls the mean speed over an extended period throughout that load on the engine might vary. When there’s modification in load, variation in speed additionally takes place then governor operates a regulatory control and adjusts the fuel provide to keep up the mean speed nearly constant. Therefore the governor mechanically regulates through linkages, the energy provided to the engines as demanded by variation of load, so the engine speed is maintained nearly constant.

Types of Governor:

The governor can be classified into the following types. These are given below,

1. Centrifugal governor

a) Pendulum type watt governor

b) Loaded type governor

i) Gravity controlled type

Ø Porter governor

Ø Proell governor

Ø Watt governor

ii) Spring controlled type

Ø Hartnell governor

Ø Hartung governor

2. Inertia and fly-wheel governor

3. Pickering Governor

Purpose of governor:

1. To automatically maintain the uniform speed of the engine within the specified limits, whenever there is a variation of the load.

2. To regulate the fuel supply to the engine as per load requirements.

3. To regulate the mean speed of the engines.

4. It works intermittently i.e., only there’s modification within the load

5. Mathematically, it can express as ΔN.

Terminology used in the governor:

1. Height of the governor (h):

Height of the governor is defined as the vertical distance between the centre of the governor ball and the point of the intersection between the upper arm on the axis of the spindle. The height of the governor is denoted by ‘h’.

2. Radius of rotation (r):

Radius of rotation is defined as the centre of the governor balls and the axis of rotation in the spindle. The radius of rotation is denoted by ‘r’.

3. Sleeve lift (X):

The sleeve lift of the governor is defined as the vertical distance travelled by the sleeve on spindle due to change in equilibrium in speed. The sleeve lift of the governor is denoted by ‘X’.

4. Equilibrium speed:

The equilibrium speed means, the sped at which the governor balls, arms, sleeve, etc, are in complete equilibrium and there is no upward or downward movement of the sleeve on the spindle, is called as equilibrium speed.

5. Mean Equilibrium speed:

The mean equilibrium speed is defined as the speed at the mean position of the balls or the sleeve is called as mean equilibrium speed.

6. Maximum speed:

The Maximum speed is nothing but the speeds at the maximum radius of rotation of the balls without tending to move either way is called as maximum speed.

7. Minimum speed:

The Minimum speed is nothing but the speeds at the minimum radius of rotation of the balls without tending to move either way is called as minimum speed.

8. Governor effort:

The mean force working on the sleeve for a given change of speed is termed as the governor effort.

9. Power of the governor:

The power of the governor is state that the product of mean effort and lift of the sleeve is called as power of the governor.

10. Controlling force:

The controlling force is nothing but an equal and opposite force to the centrifugal force, acting radially (i.e., centripetal force) is termed as controlling force of a governor. In other words, the force acting radially upon the rotating balls to counteract its centrifugal force is called the controlling force.

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Nitrous Oxide Injected Engine

Nitrous oxide (N₂O) is a chemical compound used as an oxidizing agent to increase an internal combustion engine's power output by allowing more fuel to be burned than would normally be the case by introducing a high amount of oxygen into the fuel mixture

When nitrous oxide decomposes, a single mole (a mole is a common scientific term for a specified number of atoms, or in this case, molecules), will release 1/2 mole of O2 molecules (oxygen gas), and one mole of N2 molecules (nitrogen gas). This decomposition allows an oxygen saturation of 33% to be reached (the produced nitrogen gas is non-combustible and does not support combustion). Air, which contains only 21% oxygen, the rest being nitrogen and other equally non-combustible and non-combustion-supporting gasses, permits a 12 percentage point lower maximum oxygen saturation than that of nitrous oxide. This oxygen is the gas which supports combustion, in that it alone combines with hydrocarbons such as gasoline, alcohol, and diesel fuelto produce carbon dioxide and water vapor, and heat, which causes these two products of combustion to expand and to exert pressure on pistons, driving the engine.

Nitrous oxide is stored as a liquid in tanks, but because of its low boiling point it vaporizes easily when released to atmosphere. When injected into an inlet manifold, this characteristic causes a reduction in air/fuel charge temperature with an associated increase in density, thereby increasing the cylinder's volumetric efficiency.

When N₂O breaks down in the engine's combustion phase, there is an additional benefit to performance: the oxygen atoms in N2O, as they are freed from their bond to the nitrogen atoms release heat in an exothermic reaction, i.e. one producing more heat than was required to initiate the breakdown; contributing to the overall power increase. The additional amount of heat produced, like that achieved above by increasing the charge of fuel allowed, by use of "nitro," similarly increases engine efficiency and performance, which is directly related to the difference in temperature between the unburned fuel mixture and the hot combustion gasses produced in the cylinders.

Nitrous systems can increase power by as little as 0.5 hp (0.37 kW) or as much as 3,000 hp (2,200 kW), depending on the engine type and nitrous system type. In many applications torque gains are even greater as increased fuel is burnt at a lower rpm range and is what causes the significant improvement in acceleration. All systems are based on a single stage kit, but these kits can be used in multiples (called 2, 3 or even 4 stage). The most advanced systems are controlled by an electronic progressive delivery unit that allows a single kit to perform better than multiple kits can. Most Pro Mod and some Pro Street drag race cars use three stages for additional power, but more and more are switching to pulsed progressive technology. Progressive systems have the advantage of utilizing a larger amount of nitrous (and fuel) to produce even greater power increases as the additional power and torque is gradually introduced as opposed to being applied to the engine and transmission immediately, reducing the risk of mechanical stress and consequently damage.

Spectators can easily identify nitrous-equipped cars at the track by the fact that most will "purge" the delivery system prior to reaching the starting line. A separate electrically operated valve is used to release air and gaseous nitrous oxide trapped in the delivery system. This brings liquid nitrous oxide all the way up through the plumbing from the storage tank to the solenoid valve or valves that will release it into the engine's intake tract. When the purge system is activated, one or more plumes of nitrous oxide will be visible for a moment as the liquid flashes to vapor as it is released. The purpose of a nitrous purge is to ensure that the correct amount of nitrous oxide is delivered the moment the system is activated as nitrous and fuel jets are sized to produce correct air / fuel ratios, and as liquid nitrous is denser than gaseous nitrous, any nitrous vapor in the lines will cause the car to "bog" for an instant (as the ratio of nitrous / fuel will be too rich) until liquid nitrous oxide reaches the intake.

Types of nitrous systems

There are two main categories of nitrous systems: dry & wet. A nitrous system is primarily concerned with introducing fuel and nitrous into the engine's cylinders, and combining them for more efficient combustion.

Wet versus Dry

I'm sure you've heard the terms "wet kit" and "dry kit." Actually, let me start with a rant on the "kit" part. A kit is a bunch of nitrous components packaged together by any of the usual vendors, and sold as one item. Typically, these are completely devoid of safety devices, so that they can be sold at a cheap price. This is where the "$600 nitrous kit" idea comes from. While these are fine for getting lots of the basic parts, they are horrible from a safety perspective, and can easily damage your motor. Get the appropriate safety devices and add them to your kit, if you go that way. I'll be calling a complete setup a "system" here.

On to the wet and dry discussion. A "wet system" is a nitrous system which mixes nitrous and fuel, and feeds it (in a "fog") into the intake. A "dry system" only feeds nitrous into the intake, and tricks the existing fuel system to add the fuel. In an LS1 car, this is done via the MAF sensing the colder intake temperature as nitrous is fed through it. In an LT1 car, a dry system typically adds adds about  50 psi of pressure to the vacuum nipple of the stock fuel pressure regulator, increasing the fuel pressure to about 90 psi, and driving more fuel through (hopefully upgraded) fuel injectors via the muscle of the add-on fuel pump. 

Either wet or dry system can be made to work, of course, so how do you decide which to use? Here's a chart f some pro's and con's with each to help you decide:

Feature	Wet	Dry
Nitrous	Plumbed and wired by you, into any of the various delivery mechanisms	Same as the wet system
Fuel	Plumbed, wired and jetted by you. You have complete control over the fuel system, typically making the nitrous system easier to tune. Stock pump and injectors are typically fine.	Uses the stock fuel delivery, via raising the fuel pressure by tricking the regulator. Must have good quality fuel injectors that won't fail on high pressure, and must have a fuel pump that can supply the pressure (ie, not the stock injectors or pump).
Tuning	Done by adjusting the fuel and nitrous jets, using O2 sensors to measure the a/f ratio.	On an LT1, this is done by adjusting the "fuel" and nitrous jets, the "fuel" jet actually being a jet that connects to the fuel pressure regulator to raise and lower fuel pressure. Not completely flexible, as the FPR can only support a certain range of pressure. On an LS1, nitrous is sprayed through the MAF, which is able to tell the PCM to adjust the injector pulses to compensate with extra fuel.

Delivery Mechanisms

As I mentioned, there are several ways to feed the nitrous and fuel into your motor. Here are brief descriptions of them.

Throttle Body Plate

This is a 1/2" thick plate that's mounted between your throttle body and intake manifold. Both nitrous and fuel lines are connected to it (so it's a wet setup) and the plate combines them and sprays them into the intake.

Fogger Nozzle

A nozzle can support either a single line for nitrous, or a pair of lines for nitrous and fuel, and sprays them in a fine mist into the intake.

Direct Port

The ultimate setup, a port is tapped and threaded specifically for each cylinder, running eight nitrous and eight fuel lines to spray directly into the cylinders. This setup is typically used above about 250hp, to allow accurate tuning for each cylinder. At left is the Agostino Racing direct port LT1 manifold.

Triggering the System

Of course, you don't want the system to be running all the time - a 10lb bottle will last you less than a minute, if it's open. Typically, you want the system triggered on while you're at the track, at WOT (wide open throttle), and at relatively high rpm's (see "Safety" for why). To make that happen, you'll typically want to wire, in sequence, several switches. I won't describe the specific wiring here, but you'll have some or all of the following:

• A Master On/Off switch
• A WOT switch, which is installed on the actual throttle, that closes the circuit only when your foot is on the floorboard
• A pushbutton in the car, probably on the shifter
• A "window switch" (see "Safety" for details) that closes the circuit only when the engine RPM is between a certain range (like 3000-6000) that you decide is acceptable
• A fuel pressure switch

What Can Go Wrong?

Well, a lot can go wrong, but hopefully you'll have adequate safety mechanisms built in to protect your motor when it does. The main thing that can go wrong is adding nitrous into your engine without compensating fuel. This extreme lean condition is disaster for the engine, and you're not likely to get a second chance - at least with the same engine. Conversely, adding extra fuel without nitrous is not particularly bad for the engine, so you can imagine, it's safer to start with the car running rich (too much fuel), then lean it back from there. Some examples of problems you might encounter include:

Fuel pump fails	A failed pump will lose pressure immediately, causing an extreme lean condition
Fuel injector failure or lockup	Using stock fuel injectors with a dry nitrous kit can cause the injectors to lock up and not flow fuel
Solenoid failure	A failed fuel or nitrous solenoid can cause serious damage

Ignition RPM limiter

On a stock LT1 or LS1 computer, the rev limiter is implemented by cutting the signal to the fuel injectors so the cylinders have no combustion. If you're running a dry system, which depends on the fuel injectors to provide compensating fuel for the nitrous, losing fuel this way is the ultimate disaster. An aftermarket ignition will typically implement the rev limit by cutting off spark rather than fuel, which is a much safer implementation of the rev limit. Typically, you'd get your stock PCM programmed to set the rev limit up higher than you'll ever expect to go (like 7000RPM), and use the setting on the aftermarket ignition as your actual rev limit.

Window Switch

This electrical device provides an open or closed circuit based on the engine being between two RPM values (hence "window") that you chose, so that you'll only flow nitrous in this range. Why would you do that? Well, for two very different reasons.

At low RPM, think about what's going on: you're spraying nitrous into the intake at a constant flow. That is, the nitrous bottle and solenoids have no idea what RPM you're at, and they're just pushing it into the intake at a constant volume. Inside the engine, though, the nitrous and fuel combination is being sucked into the cylinders during every stroke. The net result is that at low RPM, you're getting far more of the mixture into the cylinders. At 3000 RPM, for example, you're getting twice the amount as at 6000 RPM. So, you can imagine that running nitrous at, say 1000 RPM, is far more stressful on the motor as at 3000 RPM, and typically causes a "nitrous backfire" - meaning that the nitrous/fuel combination can explode in the intake manifold (rather than the cylinders) - a bad thing. So that's why you don't want the system triggered at low RPM.

At high RPM, the situation is easier to explain. Given the discussion of the rev limit above, you may just want the nitrous system to cut off before hitting that rev limit. If you've got a stock LT1 or LS1 ignition, you certainly want a window switch. If your rev limit is implemented by an aftermarket ignition, it's perfectly safe for the motor to run nitrous during the rev limit. It's not particularly easy though, on your transmission or clutch to have all that power during the shift, which may be a reason to keep the window switch set a bit before you shift. 

Fuel Pressure Safety Switch (FPSS)

This is a device that's plumbed into the fuel system, and provides an open or closed circuit based on availability of fuel pressure. It can be used in the triggering circuit to make sure the system isn't on when you've got a fuel problem. Typically, you only use it to switch off the nitrous solenoid; turning off the fuel solenoid as well can start a cycle of switching the solenoids on and off while the pressure raises and drops in the fuel system when you're switching the solenoid on and off. Let the pressure build up in the fuel lines when you open that solenoid, and when it's high enough, the nitrous solenoid will open. The switch can be used whether you've got a wet or a dry system. You can adjust the pressure at which it triggers by using an allen wrench on the back of the switch (loosen the screw lowers the pressure threshold).

You want to set the pressure on the FPSS, such that if the pressure drops about 10psi the nitrous system will shut off. On a wet LT1 system, this will be around 33psi, and on a dry system I'd leave the switch just above stock, say 45psi.

To set the threshold pressure, you've got a few options"

1. Connect enough plumbing so that you can have the FPSS installed at the same time as a fuel pressure gauge. Turn the key on to pressurize the fuel system, then turn it off. As the fuel pressure bleeds down, monitor the continuity across the FPSS contacts (disconnect them from the rest of the nitrous system) and when the pressure reaches the level you're interested in, adjust the screw on the back so it just balances back and forth between the continuity signal.
2. You could use an air compressor, with the appropriate fitting for the FPSS. Remove the FPSS from the car, and thread it onto the compressor. Set the compressor for the pressure of interest, and measure continuity as above.
3. If you can't do option #1 above because you don't have two available ports, first thread in the pressure gauge, and cycle the key. Then time how long it takes for the pressure to bleed down to the correct level. Then disconnect the pressure gauge, install the FPSS, and do the process against the clock rather than the pressure.

Timing Retard

A nitrous/fuel mixture increases the burn rate in the cylinder, and typically adding a few degrees of timing retard is recommended for safety. A rule of thumb is two degrees per 50hp of nitrous, but this will also reduce the power generated. When I tune my system, I monitor engine knock, and retard the timing only enough to eliminate the knock, which is usually about one degree per 50hp. At the track, under harder conditions (actually pulling the weight of the car, possibly higher outdoor temperatures, etc) I'll add a degree of retard.

The LT4 Knock Module is a common modification to 4th generation f-bodies. This device dulls the sensitivity of the knock sensor readings, which allows the PCM to avoid seeing noises from headers, exhaust and loud valvetrain parts incorrectly as knock. The net result is that the overall timing of the engine is advanced a bit, and the PCM is a bit less sensitive to all knock, whether real or false. Unfortunately, knock when running nitrous has more of a chance of doing damage, and it's not at all clear that using a LT4 KM while running nitrous would be a good thing. Personally, since I tune my nitrous while watching knock, and retard my timing as well, I do use the LT4 KM. Once again, though, it's your call on all these safety issues.

High Octane Fuel

High octane gas (e.g. 100 or more, unleaded) will also slow the burn rate in the cylinder. This will provide another way, similar to retarding timing, to avoid knock. I only use nitrous on a 50/50 mix of 92 octane pump gas and 100 octane racing gas. Make sure it's unleaded, of course, or you'll destroy your O₂ sensors.

By the way, watch out for Octane Boost claims. Typical claims are "8-10 points of octane boost for a tank of gas." You should be aware that these "points" are tenths of a point of octane as you'd purchase at a gas station. So the above example will raise your octane from 92 to 92.8 or 93, not 100-102 as you might think.

Don't assume that if high octane fuel helps on nitrous motors, that it'll help your naturally aspirated motor too. A naturally aspirated motor is tuned for a particular octane of gas; adding more doesn't help one bit. Save your money.

Nitrous Filter

A simple part, but essential in any nitrous system. This filter is added in-line to your nitrous line, between the tank and the solenoid. Install it as close to the solenoid end as is convenient. It will trap any small particles that may come through the line, much like a fuel filter. A common solenoid failure is due to some particle jamming it open.

Fuel Systems

Your fuel system is the most important part of the system. As I hope is clear by now, the worst scenario in a nitrous system is a lean air/fuel mixture. The solutions to a good fuel system depend on the type of nitrous system you're using.

On a wet system, you simply need to ensure that your fuel system can supply adequate fuel, at standard (~45psi at WOT) pressure. A stock f-body fuel pump can usually supply enough fuel for around 450 total horsepower to the motor; any more and you want to get a larger pump. Much more than 650hp and you'll want larger fuel lines as well.

On a dry system, not only do you want adequate fuel like the wet system, but on an LT1 setup the fuel is added by raising the fuel pressure, which forces more gas through the injectors. In this scenario, it's typically recommended that you replace the stock fuel injectors with better quality (not higher rating, just better, like Bosch) injectors. These injectors are able to handle the increased fuel pressures necessary.

Spark Plugs

Generally you want to use copper spark plugs as opposed to the stock platinum ones. You also want to reduce the gap from the stock 0.050" down to 0.035"-0.040".  I've received a couple notes on why you use a smaller gap. "The reason you want a smaller gap is because of ionization.  If you change from the typical air (78%nitrogen, 21% oxygen)/fuel ratio, a given gap requires more energy to ionize the mixture, resulting in less energy in the spark, if you even get a spark. You could also increase the coil voltage instead of decreasing the gap, but I think using a smaller gap would be preferential since the spark time will be smaller." and also this message: "The reason that you will close the gap on your spark plugs is because when nitrous is added, it raises the cylinder pressure, much like a supercharger. Therefore "blowing" the spark out. When you close the gap it cannot put out the spark as easily."

Testing Solenoids

I mentioned failed fuel or nitrous solenoids doing damage. Some of the issues here may be hard to cover with only other safety devices. I recommend you wire your solenoids with spade clips, so you can easily disconnect them, and test them on a regular basis. Simply disconnect them from the rest of the wiring, then ground one side, and connect the other side to 12V, and listen for the click-click to make sure they open and close. Some folks will also use two nitrous solenoids, in-line, which will ensure that both would have to fail before the flow would fail to stop. Of course you still need to test this setup, to ensure one isn't stuck open.

Tuning

All of the kit systems will come with a couple tuning setups, labeled "50-shot", "100-shot", etc. These are tuned to provide 50, 100, or other horsepower amounts, usually measured at the crank (i.e., measured on a chassis dyno you'll get a bit less). I consider these a starting point, and certainly good for your first passes (hopefully you'll make these with the lowest power, until you tune the system up). Once you've got the system installed and functional, though, tuning it is paramount, before running any serious power through it. I really recommend you do this tuning right away, even though the temptation will be strong to just go out and enjoy the power. This is the time you're very likely to do some serious damage to the motor, so it's important to get it set up right.

The Mechanism

Collateral Damage

You can break tons of other parts on your car by running nitrous, or any other large power adder. Running slicks at the track will just accelerate the damage. Here are a few things to keep in mind.

Clutch

The huge torque spike at low rpm's is particularly hard on clutches. I had to buy a new clutch as soon as I made my first pass with nitrous on slicks. Keep in mind, on a manual transmission car, you're likely to need one too.

Rear End

Not unique to nitrous, but certainly a common failure on high horsepower cars, is the rear end. A 4th generation f-body, with a stock 10-bolt rear end, is not going to last long on nitrous. Plan for an expensive (~$2,000) upgrade at some point.

Tires

With all the extra power, you'll have trouble hooking up with any traction, especially on street tires. You'll probably have to use drag radials at least, or slicks if you're adding any significant power.

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The Manufacturing of Auto Parts is reduced to a Single Step

Following years of research, the technology involving thixoforming, in other words, the shaping of metals in a semi-solid state, is beginning to yield results. CIC marGUNE, the Co-operative Research Centre for High-performance Manufacturing, is exploring the possibility of modifying the current process to manufacture parts for the automotive industry, thanks to thixoforming technology. This research is being conducted in collaboration with CIE-Legazpi and Mondragon University.

The current process to manufacture parts for the automotive industry usually consists of three or four steps. CIC marGUNE, CIE-Legazpia and Mondragon University are exploring the possibility of modifying this process by basing it on thixoforming technology. "The aim is to produce the final part in a single step, which would bypass the whole process in between," pointed out Mikel Intxausti of the company CIE-Legazpi.

From the lab to industry

As yet there is no manufacturer that uses this process. That is why the engineer Jokin Lozares is working with a clear aim in mind in the laboratory of Mondragon University: to be able to transfer thixoforming from the laboratories to industry. On a laboratory scale they have already managed to reduce to a single step what in industry currently requires three or four.

"Thixoforming technology is not a new technology; it has been worked on for many years but until now it has not been possible to make sufficient progress," said Iñigo Loizaga, Chairman of CICmarGUNE and coordinator of the line of research.

Thixoforming is a process in which the material is kept between a liquid and solid state and is shaped in that semi-solid state. All this offers certain advantages with respect to the conventional method of forging. Firstly, savings are made in terms of material. "To produce the same part, thixoforming technology uses about 20% less material than forging, since no surplus material is obtained in the new process, and the final part with the desired geometry is obtained directly," explained Jokin Lozares. "What is more," he added, "a process that takes three or four steps right now in industry is cut to a single step, and allows infinitely more complex geometries to be achieved."

Until now, the experimental tests have been focussing on a car part that is fitted to the car's rear suspension. Specifically, it is the part that is attached to the wheel and the car's disc brake, the part that ensures that the rear wheel turns. "We can see that even by coming up with a process in which we want to break the equipment to see how long it lasts, the equipment is lasting longer than expected. As yet it is not enough to be a totally industrial process, but we have to go on conducting research and advancing, because thixoforming appears to have a future," pointed out Loizaga. "We are even looking at the possibility of working with materials more advanced than steel with the aeronautical industry in mind mainly," he added.

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A Clean Air Harvest

Farm air will be cleaner this year. As the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s deadline for zero emissions for “nonroad” diesel vehicles approaches, many farm equipment manufactures are rolling out their solutions. Called Tier 4 Final, this stage in emissions reductions marks the end of a long multi-tiered road, with near-zero emissions for farm vehicles the final destination. The success of the many new engines on the market is a testament to the creativity, ingenuity, and diversity of engineering today.

Back in 1996 when the EPA told truck and auto manufactures they must cut emissions, John Deere, Caterpillar, and Cummins may have seen the writing on the wall but they didn’t have too much to worry about at that moment. Their bread and butter machinery was not meant for the highway. But in 2006, things changed. Tractors, combines, excavators, and other heavy-duty diesel vehicles would have to cut their emissions of nitrogen oxides and particulate matter by 90% (depending on the horsepower) by 2011 and then down to nearly nothing by 2014.

Bringing emissions down to near zero is a unique challenge for diesel engines. Without an after exhaust-treatment system, it’s impossible to cut both nitrogen oxides as waste. Burn up all the particle matter and you increase the nitrogen oxide output. Reticulate the exhaust and the particulate matter levels go up. Understanding the difficulty of the problem, the EPA eased the law in with tiers over the years.

The final Tier 4 engines that are hitting the field this summer have made the big jump down with a handful of solutions, and, in some cases, some positive side effects.

Meeting the Standard

The technology for cutting emissions fell into two camps. On the one hand are engines that take the exhaust and bring it back into the engine, to cool it and reduce the nitrogen oxides. These exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) engines require a particle filter as well. This was the method used by John Deere up to 2011.

The Case IH traktor Puma 195 CVX is one of the machines with Tier 4 compliant engines. Image: Wikimedia Commons

Another solution is the selective catalytic reduction (SCR): Burn up all the particulate matter in the engine and then deal with the nitrogen oxides post combustion by passing it through a catalyst.

The latter is the solution used by Case IH(and John Deere tacked an SCR on to their EGR to meet the final Tier 4 regulations). “For us it was how do we get there, how do we meet the standard and give simplicity back to customers,” says Leo Bose, Case IH’s commercial training manager. “Burning up the particle matter came with an advantage: You’ve increased the energy output, with a 10% savings on fuel.” 

To the farmer, this means the higher cost of the machinery could be outweighed by the fuel savings and extra power. “Our engineers said that when the customer puts fuel in that tractor, we want to make sure he uses it all for power,” says Bose. “We’ve tuned that engine for power, taking all that particulate matter and burned it up for power. But it’s a double-edged sword. If you’re burning it up, the nitrogen oxide gets higher.”

Quieter Engines

The other side of that blade is dulled with diesel exhaust fluid, or AdBlue as the company calls it. It is shot into the exhaust as it passes through a honeycomb catalyst chamber, breaking the nitrogen oxide into a simpler, safer form: nitrogen and water.

“That’s all that the SCR chamber does with the diesel exhaust fluid,” says Bose. The fluid costs less than the fuel and the catalyst never needs maintenance. In addition to the added power that comes with the newly cleaned exhaust, there’s another happy byproduct: the engines are quieter. “The customers are enamored of the noise levels,” says Bose.

“Just give me a simple solution that makes it easy for the customer and you’ve got a home run.”

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Transforming Green Transportation

Hydrogen-powered fuel cells are regarded as the cleanest alternative to the internal combustion engine. After all, the only byproduct they create is water, a substance upon which all life depends. Mass production of fuel cell-powered vehicles would have a huge positive impact on reducing greenhouse gases and cleaning up the atmosphere. The biggest drawback, however, is price. Thanks largely to the use of platinum in fuel cells, these vehicles are too expensive to manufacture.

This may not be the case too much longer. An explosion of research is leading scientists to develop platinum replacements that are improving the efficiency and reducing the cost of fuel-cell systems, without relying on this high-priced and toxic metal.

The most common fuel cell is the Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) (also known as proton exchange membrane fuel cell). It operates at low temperatures in the 60-150° C range and is well-suited for automotive applications and small-scale distributed generation.

Low-temperature cells such as PEMFC have the highest power density, require high-purity hydrogen, allow for quick start-up, and handle dynamics efficiently, making them ideal for transportation applications and as back-up power generators. A major drawback, however, is that “these fuel cells commonly utilize a noble metal as a catalyst and their performance remains susceptible to both air and fuel impurities,” stated Prabhakar Singh, director for the Center for Clean Energy Engineering at the University of Connecticut, Storrs.

 

Getting Rid of Platinum

The big R&D driver for PEMFC fuel cells is the automotive industry. Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles are expected to play an important role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and meeting 2020 emission standards in the U.S. For example, preparation, California plans to spend about $18 million to expand its network of hydrogen fueling stations across the state, with the goal of supporting one million zero-emission vehicles by 2020.  To make this happen, though, fuel cell-powered cars must be affordable, which means getting rid of platinum.

Large amounts of platinum are required for PEMFC electrodes to achieve necessary conversion rates. “However, using expensive platinum as a catalyst for the oxygen reduction reaction results in high fuel-cell cost,” said Partha P. Mukherjee, assistant professor of mechanical engineering at Texas A&M University.

One way to reduce platinum content is by developing platinum alloys that are just as effective as platinum, but contain much smaller concentrations of the metal.

“Very low-platinum electrodes are being fine-tuned by some suppliers to ensure both performance and durability,” indicated Scott Blanchet, director of technology development for Nuvera Fuel Cells, a developer of fuel cell technology. “For example, Nuvera successfully completed a DOE-funded program in 2012 that demonstrated 12.5W per milligram of platinum in a full-format fuel-cell stack. Today’s ultra-low-emission gasoline passenger vehicles contain about 10 grams of platinum-group metals in their catalytic converters. So, at 12.5W/mg, a 125-kW fuel cell would contain the same amount of platinum as a typical gasoline car on the road today, but produce no carbon emissions.”

European scientists have developed an electrode material that uses only 10 percent of the amount of platinum that is normally required. The researchers discovered the efficiency of the nanometer-sized catalyst particles is greatly impacted by their geometric shape and atomic structure. Instead of being round, the platinum-nickel alloy nanoparticles are octahedral-shaped, which accelerates the chemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen.

Another new catalyst has been announced at the University of Wisconsin. There, researchers have deposited nanostructures of molybdenum disulfide on a disk of graphite, which was then subjected to a lithium treatment to create a unique structure with improved catalytic properties. Also, in June 2013, UK-based fuel cell developer ACAL achieved a run time of 10,000 hours for a fuel cell without any significant signs of degradation. Unlike a conventional PEMFC, ACAL’s technology utilizes a liquid catalyst that acts as both a coolant and catalyst, eliminating the need for platinum.

On the Horizon

The fuel-cell industry continues to gain strength. Successful fuel-cell deployment has been demonstrated in key economic regions of the world, such as Korea and California. However, a major breakthrough in electrode chemistry and performance must be made to create widespread market demand.

"Platinum is so expensive [about $4,000 per fuel-cell car], and such a limited resource, that we must find a way to replace it if fuel-cell cars are going to succeed,” said Zhongwei Chen, professor of engineering at the University of Waterloo in Canada, who is working with U.S. Department of Energy to develop nonprecious materials to replace the platinum catalysts in fuel cells.

"Here at Waterloo we are using nanotechnology to create advanced non-precious alternatives for platinum that are a fraction of the cost of platinum, yet provide comparable durability," Chen added. "If we can find a suitable alternative to platinum, it could help pave the way for the motor industry to adopt hydrogen fuel cells for more than a million new vehicles by the end of the decade."

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